Over the years, aircraft carriers have significantly evolved, transitioning from wooden ships carrying balloons to becoming formidable nuclear-powered vessels capable of transporting entire fleets of planes and helicopters. Since their inception, these carriers have enabled navies to project air power far from their home bases, eliminating the need for local bases to launch their aircraft.
Balloon carriers were the pioneering vessels for deploying manned aircraft, primarily used for observation during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The introduction of fixed-wing aircraft in 1903 was succeeded in 1910 by the inaugural flight from the deck of a US Navy cruiser. This was followed by the development of seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, like HMS Engadine. The creation of flat-top vessels led to the emergence of the first large fleet ships. By the early to mid-1920s, this evolution had progressed significantly, resulting in the commissioning of ships such as Hōshō, HMS Hermes, Béarn, and the Lexington-class aircraft carriers.
In the early stages of aircraft carrier development, many vessels were converted from existing ships originally intended for other purposes, such as cargo ships, cruisers, battlecruisers, or battleships. However, during the 1920s, several navies began to commission and construct aircraft carriers specifically designed for that role. This specialization in design led to the creation of more advanced and capable ships. By the Second World War, these purpose-built carriers had become the cornerstone of the carrier forces for the United States, British, and Japanese navies, and were known as fleet carriers.
World War II marked the first extensive deployment of aircraft carriers, prompting advancements in their launch and recovery processes and resulting in various design iterations. The United States constructed small escort carriers, like the USS Bogue, as an interim solution to deliver air support for convoys and amphibious assaults. Following this, light aircraft carriers, such as the USS Independence, emerged as more "militarized" and larger adaptations of the escort carrier design. While these light carriers typically accommodated air groups of comparable size to those on escort carriers, they benefited from greater speed, having been converted from cruisers that were already under construction.
The first documented use of a ship for airborne operations took place in 1806 when Lord Cochrane of the Royal Navy deployed kites from the 32-gun frigate HMS Pallas to distribute propaganda leaflets. These proclamations, written in French and opposing Napoleon Bonaparte, were affixed to the kites. The kite strings were then ignited, and once they burned through, the leaflets descended onto French territory.
On 12 July 1849, slightly more than 40 years later, the Austrian Navy vessel SMS Vulcano was utilized for deploying incendiary balloons. Several small Montgolfier-style hot air balloons were launched to drop bombs on Venice. Despite the attempt being mostly unsuccessful due to adverse winds that redirected the balloons back over the ship, one bomb did manage to reach the city.
During the American Civil War, around the time of the Peninsula Campaign, gas-filled balloons were utilized for reconnaissance on Confederate positions. However, as the battles moved inland into the densely forested areas of the Peninsula, balloons could no longer be used effectively. The coal barge USS George Washington Parke Custis was cleared of all deck rigging to accommodate the gas generators and balloon apparatus. From this barge, Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, Chief Aeronaut of the Union Army Balloon Corps, conducted his initial ascents over the Potomac River and reported the success of the first aerial operation launched from a waterborne vessel via telegraph. Other barges were modified to support additional military balloons transported along the eastern waterways, but none of these Civil War vessels ventured into the open sea.
During World War I, the navies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Sweden developed balloon carriers, also known as balloon tenders, as a result of launching balloons from ships. Approximately ten of these balloon tenders were constructed, primarily serving as aerial observation posts. Following the war, these vessels were either decommissioned or converted into seaplane tenders.
The invention of the seaplane in March 1910, marked by the French Fabre Hydravion, paved the way for the development of the first ship specifically designed as an aircraft carrier. This was realized in December 1911 with the French Navy's Foudre, the inaugural seaplane carrier. Commissioned as a seaplane tender, Foudre housed seaplanes in hangars on the main deck, from where they were deployed into the sea using a crane. She participated in tactical exercises in the Mediterranean in 1912. In November 1913, Foudre underwent further modifications, including the addition of a 10-meter flat deck for launching seaplanes.
HMS Hermes was temporarily converted into an experimental seaplane carrier in April–May 1913, marking her as one of the first seaplane carriers and the inaugural experimental seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy. Initially constructed as a merchant vessel, she was adapted to the building stocks to serve as a seaplane carrier for a series of trials in 1913. Subsequently, she was reconverted to a cruiser and then back to a seaplane carrier in 1914. HMS Hermes was sunk by a German submarine in October 1914. The first seaplane tender of the US Navy was the USS Mississippi, which was converted to this role in December 1913.
In September 1914, during World War I, the Battle of Tsingtao witnessed the Imperial Japanese Navy's seaplane carrier, Wakamiya, executing the first successful naval-launched air raids in history. Utilizing its crane, Wakamiya deployed four Maurice Farman seaplanes into the water. These aircraft subsequently launched attacks on German forces and were later recovered from the water's surface.
On the Western front, the inaugural naval air raid took place on Christmas day of 1914, when twelve seaplanes from the converted seaplane carriers HMS Engadine, Riviera, and Empress launched an attack on the Zeppelin base at Cuxhaven. Although the attack did not achieve complete success, as only a German warship was damaged, it nonetheless demonstrated the feasibility of ship-borne aircraft attacks in the European theatre and highlighted the strategic significance of this new weapon. Similarly, the Russians exhibited considerable innovation in deploying seaplane carriers in the Black Sea theatre during World War I.
During the inter-war years, many cruisers and capital ships were equipped with catapult-launched seaplanes for reconnaissance and artillery spotting. These seaplanes were launched via catapult and retrieved from the water by crane after landing. Their effectiveness continued into World War II, with significant successes noted early in the conflict. For instance, during the Second Battle of Narvik in 1940, HMS Warspite's float-equipped Swordfish played a crucial role by spotting for British naval guns, contributing to the sinking of seven German destroyers and the destruction of the German submarine U-64 with bombs.
Several experimental flights were conducted to evaluate the concept of a flat flight deck. In November 1910, Eugene Ely became the first pilot to take off from a stationary ship. He departed from a structure mounted on the forecastle of the US armoured cruiser USS Birmingham at Hampton Roads, Virginia, and landed nearby on Willoughby Spit after approximately five minutes in the air.
On 18 January 1911, he achieved the milestone of being the first pilot to land on a stationary ship. Departing from the Tanforan racetrack, he successfully landed on a temporary platform constructed aft of the USS Pennsylvania, which was anchored at the San Francisco waterfront. The makeshift braking system, utilizing sandbags and ropes, directly contributed to the development of the arrestor hook and wires. Subsequently, his aircraft was repositioned, allowing him to take off once more.
Commander Charles Rumney Samson of the Royal Navy achieved a significant milestone on 9 May 1912, by becoming the first aviator to take off from a moving warship. He piloted a Short S.38 aircraft from the deck of the battleship HMS Hibernia, which was travelling at a speed of 15 knots during the Royal Fleet Review at Weymouth, England.
HMS Ark Royal is considered the first active aircraft carrier, as it was equipped with armed seaplanes for combat and military operations. Initially laid down as a merchant ship, it was converted during construction into a hybrid aircraft/seaplane carrier with a launch platform. Launched on 5 September 1914, it participated in the Dardanelles campaign and throughout World War I. The ship's speed was insufficient for operations with the Grand Fleet and in the North Sea, leading to its reassignment to the Mediterranean in mid-January 1915 to support the Gallipoli campaign.
HMS Furious was the pioneering vessel designed with the fundamental characteristics of contemporary aircraft carriers, being the first to feature a flight deck for aircraft. Initially, its flight decks were segmented and not continuous with the full length of the ship. In 1925, HMS Furious underwent reconstruction to include a full-length flight deck and subsequently participated in combat operations during World War II. In contrast, HMS Ark Royal functioned as a seaplane carrier without a traditional flight deck; its aircraft would take off and land on the sea, and were then retrieved using shipboard cranes.
On 2 August 1917, Squadron Commander E.H. Dunning of the Royal Navy successfully landed his Sopwith Pup aircraft on HMS Furious at Scapa Flow, Orkney, marking the first instance of an aircraft landing on a moving ship. Tragically, he lost his life five days later during a subsequent landing attempt on the Furious.
During the war, one of the most successful carrier operations occurred on 19 July 1918 during the Tondern raid. Seven Sopwith Camels, launched from HMS Furious, targeted the German Zeppelin base at Tondern, each carrying two 50 lb bombs. The attack resulted in the destruction of several airships and balloons. However, as the carrier lacked the capability to recover the aircraft, two pilots were compelled to ditch their planes in the sea near the carrier, while the others made their way to neutral Denmark. This operation marked the first carrier-launched airstrike in history.
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 imposed stringent restrictions on the tonnage of battleships and battlecruisers for the principal naval powers following World War I. It also established a limit on the total tonnage for carriers, with an individual ship cap of 27,000 tons. Although exceptions were allowed concerning the maximum tonnage per ship, experimental units were not included in the fleet count, ensuring that the overall tonnage limit was not surpassed. Despite this, all major navies exceeded their battleship tonnage limits but were significantly below the tonnage limits for aircraft carriers. As a result, many battleships and battlecruisers, both under construction and in service, were converted into aircraft carriers.
HMS Argus was the first ship to feature a full-length flat deck, with its conversion finalized in September 1918. The United States Navy did not adopt this design until 1920, upon completing the conversion of USS Langley, an experimental vessel that was not included in America's carrier tonnage. The first American fleet carriers entered service in November 1927, with the commissioning of USS Saratoga, a Lexington-class carrier. The class's lead ship, USS Lexington, was commissioned in the subsequent month.
The HMS Hermes was the first aircraft carrier specifically designed for that purpose, with its construction beginning in 1918. Japan started work on the Hōshō the following year. Hōshō was commissioned in December 1922, while Hermes followed in February 1924. Although the design of HMS Hermes came before and influenced that of Hōshō, its commissioning was delayed due to extensive tests, experiments, and budgetary considerations. Ultimately, Hermes became the first aircraft carrier to feature the two most distinctive characteristics of modern carriers: a full-length flight deck and a starboard-side control tower island. Apart from the squared-off flight deck prow and angled flight deck seen in later carriers, Hermes was the first to exhibit the main features that would define the classic silhouette and layout of the majority of aircraft carriers produced over the next century.
By the late 1930s, aircraft carriers globally typically operated three types of aircraft: torpedo bombers, which were also utilized for conventional bombing and reconnaissance; dive bombers, which additionally served reconnaissance roles; and fighters, designated for fleet defence and bomber escort missions. Due to the limited space on aircraft carriers, these aircraft were small, single-engine models, often equipped with folding wings to optimize storage. During this period, the Royal Navy introduced the concept of the armoured flight deck, enclosing the hangar within an armoured structure. The lead ship of this innovative design, HMS Illustrious, was commissioned in 1940.
Before the onset of the war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt observed that no new aircraft carriers were anticipated to join the fleet until 1944. He proposed converting several Cleveland-class cruiser hulls that had already been laid down. These were intended to function as additional fast carriers, given that escort carriers lacked the necessary speed to keep pace with the fleet carriers and their escorts. The official U.S. Navy classification for these vessels was small aircraft carrier (CVL), rather than light. Before July 1943, they were simply classified as aircraft carriers (CV).
The Royal Navy developed a similar design that was utilized by both Britain and the Commonwealth nations following World War II. Among these carriers, HMS Hermes operated as India's INS Viraat until it was decommissioned in 2017.
To safeguard Atlantic convoys, the British created Merchant Aircraft Carriers, which were merchant vessels outfitted with a flat deck to accommodate six aircraft. These ships operated with civilian crews, flew under merchant flags, and transported their usual cargo while also offering air support for the convoy. Since there were no lifts or hangars, aircraft maintenance was restricted, and the aircraft remained on the deck for the entire journey.
These functioned as interim solutions until dedicated escort carriers (CVE) could be constructed in the United States. Approximately one-third the size of a fleet carrier, they accommodated between 20 and 30 aircraft, primarily for anti-submarine operations. Over 100 were either built or converted from merchant vessels. Escort carriers in the U.S. were developed from two fundamental hull designs: one based on a merchant ship and the other on a slightly larger and faster tanker. In addition to convoy defence, these carriers were utilized to transport aircraft across the ocean. Nonetheless, some played active roles in the battles to liberate the Philippines, most notably the Battle of Samar, where six escort carriers and their accompanying destroyers boldly engaged five Japanese battleships, ultimately compelling them to retreat.
As an interim solution before adequate numbers of merchant aircraft carriers were available, the British offered air cover for convoys using Catapult Aircraft Merchantman (CAM) ships. These CAM ships were merchant vessels outfitted with an aircraft, typically a battle-worn Hawker Hurricane, which was launched via a catapult. Once airborne, the aircraft could not return to the ship and had to be ditched in the sea if it was beyond the reach of land. Over a span of more than two years, fewer than ten launches occurred, yet these missions achieved some success, downing six bombers at the cost of a single pilot's life.
Aircraft carriers were pivotal in World War II. At the onset of the conflict, the Royal Navy possessed a substantial numerical advantage with seven aircraft carriers, as neither Germany nor Italy had any carriers. Nonetheless, the susceptibility of carriers in direct gun-range confrontations, as opposed to traditional battleships, was swiftly demonstrated by the sinking of HMS Glorious by German battle-cruisers during the Norwegian campaign in 1940.
The versatility of the carrier was demonstrated in November 1940 when HMS Illustrious executed a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at Taranto, marking the inception of effective mobile aircraft strikes using short-range aircraft. This operation disabled three of the six battleships in the harbor at the cost of two of the 21 attacking Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers. Carriers also played a crucial role in reinforcing Malta, both by transporting aircraft and defending convoys sent to supply the besieged island. The use of carriers prevented the Italian Navy and land-based German aircraft from dominating the Mediterranean theater.
In May 1941, aircraft from HMS Ark Royal and HMS Victorious played a crucial role in slowing down the German battleship Bismarck in the Atlantic. As the war progressed, escort carriers demonstrated their value by protecting convoys traversing the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.
Germany and Italy initiated the construction or conversion of several aircraft carriers. However, aside from the nearly completed Graf Zeppelin, no vessels were launched.
World War II in the Pacific Ocean was marked by substantial battles involving aircraft carrier fleets. At the beginning of the conflict, Japan maintained a fleet of ten aircraft carriers, representing the most extensive and technologically advanced carrier fleet worldwide at that period. In comparison, the United States entered the war with a total of seven aircraft carriers, with only three stationed in the Pacific theatre.
Drawing on the Japanese advancements in shallow-water modifications for aerial torpedoes in 1939 and the British aerial assault on the Italian fleet at Taranto in 1940, the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 demonstrated the formidable power projection facilitated by a substantial fleet of modern aircraft carriers. The consolidation of six carriers into a single striking unit marked a pivotal moment in naval history, as no other nation had deployed a comparable force.
During this period, the Japanese commenced their progression through Southeast Asia. The destruction of the HMS Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese land-based aircraft definitively demonstrated that aircraft and aircraft carriers would become the dominant forces at sea. This marked the first instance in naval history where aircraft successfully sank a battleship that was actively manoeuvring and defending itself. In April 1942, the Japanese fast carrier strike force advanced into the Indian Ocean, sinking various vessels, including the damaged and undefended carrier HMS Hermes. Smaller Allied fleets, lacking sufficient aerial support, were compelled to either retreat or face annihilation.
The Doolittle Raid, involving 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers launched from the USS Hornet targeting Tokyo, compelled the Japanese strike force to return to home waters. The Battle of the Coral Sea marked the world's first carrier battle, where fleets engaged solely through aircraft, resulting in a tactical victory for the Japanese but a strategic triumph for the Allies. At the Battle of Midway, for the first time in history, a naval battle was decisively fought using aircraft instead of warships. All four Japanese carriers involved were sunk by aircraft from three American carriers, one of which was lost. This battle is regarded as the turning point of the war in the Pacific. Notably, the Japanese orchestrated the battle to lure out American carriers, which had been elusive and troublesome for them.
Following the introduction of the Essex-class carriers in 1943, the United States successfully amassed a significant number of aircraft across a combination of fleet, light, and newly commissioned escort carriers. These vessels formed the core of the fast carrier task forces within the 3rd and 5th Fleets and were instrumental in securing victory in the Pacific theatre. The 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea, the largest aircraft carrier battle in history, was a pivotal naval engagement of World War II.
The dominance of the battleship as the primary fleet component concluded when U.S. carrier-borne aircraft sank the largest battleships ever constructed, the Japanese super battleships Musashi in 1944 and Yamato in 1945. In response to the devastating loss of four fleet carriers at Midway, Japan constructed the largest aircraft carrier of the war: Shinano. Originally a Yamato-class ship, it was converted before completion. However, in November 1944, the U.S. submarine Archerfish sank Shinano while it was in transit shortly after commissioning, before being fully outfitted or operational.
Three significant post-war advancements arose from the necessity to enhance the operations of jet-powered aircraft, which possessed greater weights and landing speeds compared to their propeller-driven predecessors. The inaugural jet landing on an aircraft carrier was executed by Lieutenant Commander Eric "Winkle" Brown, who landed on HMS Ocean in the specially adapted de Havilland Vampire LZ551/G on December 3, 1945. Brown also holds the record for the number of carrier landings, with a total of 2,407.
Following these successful tests, there remained considerable reservations regarding the feasibility of regularly operating jet aircraft from carriers. Consequently, LZ551/G was transported to Farnborough to engage in trials of the experimental "rubber deck." Despite substantial efforts to advance this concept and the performance benefits gained from the removal of the undercarriage, it was ultimately deemed unnecessary. With the advent of angled flight decks, jets were operating from carriers by the mid-1950s.
During World War II, aircraft would land on the flight deck aligned with the ship's longitudinal axis. Aircraft that had already landed were stationed on the deck at the bow end of the flight deck. A crash barrier was erected behind them to halt any landing aircraft that overshot the landing area due to a missed engagement with the arrestor cables. If an overshoot occurred, it could often result in significant damage or injury, and potentially lead to the destruction of parked aircraft if the crash barrier lacked sufficient strength.
A significant advancement in the early 1950s was the Royal Navy's implementation of the angled flight deck, developed by Capt. D.R.F. Campbell RN in collaboration with Lewis Boddington of the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough. This innovation involved orienting the runway at a slight angle from the ship's longitudinal axis. If an aircraft misses the arrestor cables, the pilot could simply increase engine power to the maximum to become airborne again, avoiding collision with parked aircraft due to the deck's orientation over the sea.
The angled flight deck was initially evaluated on HMS Triumph by painting angled deck markings onto the centerline flight deck for touch-and-go landings. This concept was also tested on USS Midway in the same year. In both instances, the arresting gear and barriers remained aligned with the original axis deck. From September to December 1952, USS Antietam underwent modifications to include a rudimentary sponson for genuine angled deck tests, enabling full arrested landings, which trials demonstrated to be superior. In 1953, Antietam conducted training exercises with both US and British naval units, validating the effectiveness of the angled deck concept. In 1954, HMS Centaur was modified to include an overhanging angled flight deck. The US Navy incorporated the decks as part of the SCB-125 upgrade for the Essex class and SCB-110/110A for the Midway class. In February 1955, HMS Ark Royal became the first carrier to be constructed and launched with an angled deck, followed that same year by the lead ships of the British Majestic-class (HMAS Melbourne) and the American Forrestal-class (USS Forrestal).
The modern steam-powered catapult, utilizing steam from a ship's boilers or reactors, was developed by Commander C.C. Mitchell of the Royal Naval Reserve. After successful trials on HMS Perseus from 1950 to 1952, it demonstrated superior power and reliability compared to the hydraulic catapults introduced in the 1940s, leading to its widespread adoption.
The initial Optical Landing Systems represented a significant British advancement, pioneered by Lieutenant Commander H. C. N. Goodhart RN through the invention of the Mirror Landing Aid. This system featured a gyroscopically-controlled concave mirror, later replaced by a Fresnel lens Optical Landing System, positioned on the port side of the deck. Flanking the mirror were rows of green "datum" lights. A bright orange "source" light was projected into the mirror to create the "ball," visible to aviators preparing to land. The ball's position relative to the datum lights indicated the aircraft's alignment with the desired glide path: if the ball appeared above the datum, the aircraft was too high; below the datum, it was too low; aligned with the datum, it was on the correct glide path. The gyro stabilization mitigated much of the flight deck's movement due to sea conditions, ensuring a stable glide path. The first trials of the mirror landing sight were conducted on HMS Illustrious in 1952. Before the introduction of Optical Landing Systems, pilots depended on visual flag signals from Landing Signal Officers to maintain an appropriate glide path.
The United States Navy sought to establish itself as a strategic nuclear force alongside the United States Air Force's (USAF) long-range bombers through a project aimed at building the USS United States. This vessel was designed to carry long-range twin-engine bombers, each capable of delivering an atomic bomb. However, the project was cancelled due to pressure from the newly established United States Air Force. Despite this setback, the development of aircraft carriers continued. Beginning in 1950 with the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt and later in 1955 with the USS Forrestal, nuclear weapons became part of the carriers' armament, despite objections from the Air Force. By the late 1950s, the Navy had developed a series of nuclear-armed attack aircraft.
The United States Navy pioneered the construction of the first aircraft carrier powered by nuclear reactors. The USS Enterprise, equipped with eight nuclear reactors, was the second surface warship to employ nuclear propulsion, following the USS Long Beach. Successive nuclear-powered supercarriers, beginning with the USS Nimitz, leveraged this technology to enhance endurance with just two reactors. Although several nations operate nuclear-powered submarines, to date, France is the only other country with a nuclear-powered carrier, the Charles de Gaulle.
In the post-war years, the development of the helicopter introduced a range of valuable roles and mission capabilities on aircraft carriers. While fixed-wing aircraft are primarily designed for air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attacks, helicopters serve distinct functions such as transporting equipment and personnel. Additionally, they play a crucial role in anti-submarine warfare (ASW) by employing dipping sonar, air-launched torpedoes, and depth charges. Helicopters are also utilized in anti-surface vessel warfare, equipped with air-launched anti-ship missiles.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United Kingdom and the United States transformed several older carriers into helicopter carriers or Landing Platform Helicopters (LPH), serving as seagoing helicopter bases, such as HMS Bulwark. To avoid the costly implications associated with the term "aircraft carrier," the newly developed Invincible-class carriers were initially labelled as "through deck cruisers" and were designed to function as helicopter-only escort carriers. The introduction of the Sea Harrier VTOL/STOVL fast jet enabled these carriers to accommodate fixed-wing aircraft, despite having a short flight deck.
Initially, the United States utilized certain Essex-class carriers exclusively for anti-submarine warfare (ASW), equipping them with helicopters and fixed-wing ASW aircraft such as the S-2 Tracker. Subsequently, specialized LPH helicopter carriers were developed to transport Marine Corps troops and their helicopters. These carriers evolved into the Landing Helicopter Assault (LHA) class and later into the Landing Helicopter Dock (LHD) class of amphibious assault ships, which typically also carry a limited number of Harrier aircraft.
A notable British innovation was the development of the ski-jump ramp as an alternative to modern catapult systems. Positioned at the end of a runway or flight deck, the ski-jump ramp enables an aircraft to convert some of its forward momentum into upward motion during a running start. This design aims to provide additional altitude and an upward-angled flight path, allowing extra time for the aircraft to achieve the necessary forward airspeed through engine thrust to maintain level flight. STOVL aircraft frequently utilize their capability to direct some of their thrust downwards, thereby generating additional lift until the required airspeed is reached.
As the Royal Navy phased out or sold its remaining World War II-era aircraft carriers, these were replaced by smaller vessels specifically designed to operate helicopters and the STOVL Sea Harrier jet. The implementation of the ski-jump ramp significantly improved the Harriers' STOVL capabilities, enabling them to take off with heavier payloads. This innovation was later adopted by the navies of several other countries, including India, Spain, Italy, Russia, and Thailand.
On 3 July 1950, the United Nations command initiated carrier operations against the North Korean Army in response to the invasion of South Korea. At that time, Task Force 77 comprised the carriers USS Valley Forge and HMS Triumph. Before the armistice on 27 July 1953, twelve U.S. carriers completed 27 tours in the Sea of Japan as part of Task Force 77. During periods of intensive air operations, up to four carriers were deployed simultaneously, although typically two carriers were on station with a third "ready" carrier positioned at Yokosuka, capable of responding to the Sea of Japan at short notice.
Task Force 95, a second carrier unit, operated as a blockade force in the Yellow Sea along the western coast of North Korea. This task force comprised a Commonwealth light carrier, including HMS Triumph, Theseus, Glory, Ocean, and HMAS Sydney, typically accompanied by a U.S. Escort carrier such as USS Badoeng Strait, Bairoko, Point Cruz, Rendova, and Sicily.
During the Korean War, more than 301,000 carrier sorties were conducted. Specifically, aircraft from Task Force 77 flew 255,545 sorties, Commonwealth aircraft from Task Force 95 flew 25,400 sorties, and escort carriers from Task Force 95 flew 20,375 sorties. The United States Navy and Marine Corps experienced combat losses of 541 carrier-based aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm incurred the loss of 86 aircraft in combat, while the Australian Fleet Air Arm lost 15 aircraft.
In the post-World War II era through the 1960s, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands utilized their aircraft carriers in decolonization conflicts involving former colonies. During the First Indochina War from 1946 to 1954, France deployed the carriers Dixmude, LaFayette, Bois Belleau, and Arromanches in operations against the Viet Minh.
During the 1956 Suez Crisis, the United Kingdom utilized carrier-based aircraft from HMS Eagle, HMS Albion, and HMS Bulwark, while France deployed aircraft from the carriers Arromanches and LaFayette to target Egyptian positions. Additionally, the Royal Navy carriers HMS Ocean and HMS Theseus served as mobile bases to transport troops ashore via helicopter, marking the first large-scale helicopter-borne assault.
In 1962, the Royal Netherlands Navy dispatched HNLMS Karel Doorman along with an accompanying battle group to Western New Guinea to safeguard the region from potential Indonesian invasion. This deployment almost led to an assault by the Indonesian Air Force, which was equipped with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers armed with anti-ship missiles. However, the attack was averted due to a last-minute ceasefire.
From 1964 to 1967, the Royal Navy deployed the Far East Fleet carriers Ark Royal, Centaur, and HMS Victorious to support operations in Borneo during the Konfrontasi conflict between Indonesia and Malaysia. Additionally, HMS Albion and Bulwark were utilized as commando carriers, while the Australian carrier HMAS Sydney functioned as a troop transport.
During the conflict, India strategically deployed INS Vikrant from its base in the Andaman Islands to conduct operations against Pakistani forces in the eastern region, now known as Bangladesh. Aircraft from the carrier, specifically Hawker Sea Hawks, effectively blockaded the Chittagong harbour, rendering it inoperative.
From 2 August 1964 to 15 August 1973, the United States Navy engaged in what has been described as "the most protracted, bitter, and costly war" in the history of naval aviation in the waters of the South China Sea. Operating from two deployment locations, Yankee Station and Dixie Station, carrier aircraft supported combat operations in South Vietnam and collaborated with the U.S. Air Force in bombing operations in North Vietnam under Operations Flaming Dart, Rolling Thunder, and Linebacker. The number of carriers on the line varied throughout the conflict, with up to six carriers operating simultaneously during Operation Linebacker.
Twenty-one aircraft carriers, representing all operational attack carriers of the era except the John F. Kennedy, were deployed to Task Force 77 of the US Seventh Fleet. These carriers conducted 86 war cruises and operated for a total of 9,178 days in the Gulf of Tonkin. During this period, 530 aircraft were lost in combat, and an additional 329 were lost in operational accidents, resulting in the deaths of 377 naval aviators. Furthermore, 64 aviators were reported missing, and 179 were captured. Major shipboard fires on the carriers Forrestal, Enterprise, and Oriskany resulted in the deaths of 205 officers and crew members. At times, some of these carrier groups operated over 19,000 kilometres from their home ports.
During the Falklands War, the United Kingdom successfully conducted a military operation 13,000 km from its homeland, largely due to the deployment of the light fleet carrier HMS Hermes and the smaller "through deck cruiser" carrier HMS Invincible. The conflict highlighted the effectiveness of STOVL aircraft, specifically the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, including both the Royal Navy's Sea Harrier and the RAF Harrier variants, in protecting the fleet and assault forces from shore-based aircraft and in engaging enemy targets. Sea Harriers achieved the downing of 21 fast-attack jets without suffering any aerial combat losses, although six were lost due to accidents and ground fire. Helicopters from the carriers played a crucial role in troop deployment, medical evacuation, search and rescue operations, and anti-submarine warfare.
A key takeaway from the Falklands War was the decision to withdraw Argentina's aircraft carrier, ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, along with its A-4Q aircraft. This decision was influenced by the sinking of the Argentine cruiser ARA General Belgrano by the fast attack submarine HMS Conqueror, which demonstrated the vulnerability of capital ships within the operational range of nuclear submarines.
The United States has strategically utilized aircraft carriers in the Persian Gulf and Afghanistan, as well as to safeguard its interests in the Pacific region. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, US aircraft carriers were the central platform for American airpower. Despite the limitations in deploying a substantial number of aircraft at Middle Eastern airbases, the United States effectively conducted significant air strikes using carrier-based squadrons. More recently, U.S. aircraft carriers, including the Ronald Reagan, have supplied air support for counter-insurgency efforts in Iraq.
Currently, the United States Navy has two carrier groups positioned in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea: the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and the USS Harry S. Truman, both Nimitz-class aircraft carriers. They are stationed there to support Israel in the event of an attack from Iran.
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